10 DESTINASI BERSEJARAH DIDUNIA

1.      Colosseum, Italy
Located just east of the Roman Forum, the massive stone amphitheater known as the Colosseum was commissioned around A.D. 70-72 by Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty as a gift to the Roman people. In A.D. 80, Vespasian’s son Titus opened the Colosseum–officially known as the Flavian Amphitheater–with 100 days of games, including gladiatorial combats and wild animal fights. After four centuries of active use, the magnificent arena fell into neglect, and up until the 18th century it was used as a source of building materials. Though two-thirds of the original Colosseum has been destroyed over time, the amphitheater remains a popular tourist destination, as well as an iconic symbol of Rome and its long, tumultuous history.

ORIGINS OF THE COLOSSEUM

Even after the decadent Roman emperor Nero took his own life in A.D. 68, his misrule and excesses fueled a series of civil wars. No fewer than four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian, would end up ruling for 10 years (A.D. 69-79). The Flavian emperors, as Vespasian and his sons Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96) were known, attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Around 70-72, Vespasian returned to the Roman people the lush land near the center of the city, where Nero had built an enormous palace for himself after a great fire ripped through Rome in A.D. 64. On the site of that Golden Palace, he decreed, would be built a new amphitheater where the public could enjoy gladiatorial combats and other forms of entertainment.

Did You Know?

Archaeologists believe that the Colosseum contained both drinking fountains and latrines.

After nearly a decade of construction–a relatively quick time period for a project of such a grand scale–Titus officially dedicated the Colosseum in A.D. 80 with a festival including 100 days of games. A well-loved ruler, Titus had earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The final stages of construction of the Colosseum were completed under the reign of Titus’ brother and successor, Domitian.

THE COLOSSEUM: A GRAND AMPHITHEATER

Measuring some 620 by 513 feet (190 by 155 meters), the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Unlike many earlier amphitheaters, which had been dug into hillsides to provide adequate support, the Colosseum was a freestanding structure made of stone and concrete. The distinctive exterior had three stories of arched entrances–a total of around 80–supported by semi-circular columns. Each story contained columns of a different order (or style): At the bottom were columns of the relatively simple Doric order, followed by Ionic and topped by the ornate Corinthian order. Located just near the main entrance to the Colosseum was the Arch of Constantine, built in A.D. 315 in honor of Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius at Pons Milvius.

Inside, the Colosseum had seating for more than 50,000 spectators, who may have been arranged according to social ranking but were most likely packed into the space like sardines in a can (judging by evidence from the seating at other Roman amphitheaters). Awnings were unfurled from the top story in order to protect the audience from the hot Roman sun as they watched gladiatorial combats, hunts, wild animal fights and larger combats such as mock naval engagements (for which the arena was flooded with water) put on at great expense. The vast majority of the combatants who fought in front of Colosseum audiences in Ancient Rome were men (though there were some female gladiators). Gladiators were generally slaves, condemned criminals or prisoners of war.

THE COLOSSEUM OVER THE CENTURIES

The Colosseum saw some four centuries of active use, until the struggles of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual change in public tastes put an end to gladiatorial combats and other large public entertainments by the 6th century A.D. Even by that time, the arena had suffered damaged due to natural phenomena such as lightning and earthquakes. In the centuries to come, the Colosseum was abandoned completely, and used as a quarry for numerous building projects, including the cathedrals of St. Peter and St. John Lateran, the Palazzo Venezia and defense fortifications along the Tiber River. Beginning in the 18th century, however, various popes sought to conserve the arena as a sacred Christian site, though it is in fact uncertain whether early Christian martyrs met their fate in the Colosseum, as has been speculated.

By the 20th century, a combination of weather, natural disasters, neglect and vandalism had destroyed nearly two-thirds of the original Colosseum, including all of the arena’s marble seats and its decorative elements. Restoration efforts began in the 1990s, and have proceeded over the years, as the Colosseum continues to be a leading attraction for tourists from all over the world.

2.      Stonehenge, England

For centuries, historians and archaeologists have puzzled over the many mysteries of Stonehenge, the prehistoric monument that took Neolithic builders an estimated 1,500 years to erect. Located in southern England, it is comprised of roughly 100 massive upright stones placed in a circular layout. Whi1e many modern scholars now agree that Stonehenge was once a burial ground, they have yet to determine what other purposes it served and how a civilization without modern technology—or even the wheel—produced the mighty monument. Its construction is all the more baffling because, while the sandstone slabs of its outer ring hail from local quarries, scientists have traced the bluestones that make up its inner ring all the way to the Preseli Hills in Wales, some 200 miles from where Stonehenge sits on Salisbury Plain. Today, nearly 1 million people visit Stonehenge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986, every year.

 

STONEHENGE’S MULTIPHASE CONSTRUCTION

Archaeologists believe England most iconic prehistoric ruin was built in several stages, with the earliest constructed 5,000 or more years ago. First, Neolithic Britons used primitive tools—possibly made from deer antlers—to dig a massive circular ditch and bank, or henge, on Salisbury Plain. Deep pits dating back to that era and located within the circle—known as Aubrey holes after John Aubrey, the 17th-century antiquarian who discovered them—may have once held a ring of timber posts, according to some scholars.

Did You Know?

In 1620, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, dug a large hole in the ground at the center of Stonehenge looking for buried treasure.

Several hundred years later, it is thought, Stonehenge’s builders hoisted an estimated 80 non-indigenous bluestones, 43 of which remain today, into standing positions and placed them in either a horseshoe or circular formation. During the third phase of construction, which took place around 2000 B.C., sarsen sandstone slabs were arranged into an outer crescent or ring; some were assembled into the iconic three-pieced structures called trilithons that stand tall in the center of Stonehenge. Some 50 sarsen stones are now visible on the site, which may once have contained many more. Radiocarbon dating suggests that work continued at Stonehenge until roughly 1600 B.C., with the bluestones in particularly being repositioned multiple times.

THE MEGALITHS OF STONEHENGE

Stonehenge’s sarsens, of which the largest weighs more than 40 tons and rises 24 feet, were likely sourced from quarries 25 miles north of Salisbury Plain and transported with the help of sledges and ropes; they may even have already been scattered in the immediate vicinity when the monument’s Neolithic architects first broke ground there. The smaller bluestones, on the other hand, have been traced all the way to the Preseli Hills in Wales, some 200 miles away from Stonehenge. How, then, did prehistoric builders without sophisticated tools or engineering haul these boulders, which weigh up to 4 tons, over such a great distance?

According to one longstanding theory, Stonehenge’s builders fashioned sledges and rollers out of tree trunks to lug the bluestones from the Preseli Hills. They then transferred the boulders onto rafts and floated them first along the Welsh coast and then up the River Avon toward Salisbury Plain; alternatively, they may have towed each stone with a fleet of vessels. More recent hypotheses have them transporting the bluestones with supersized wicker baskets or a combination of ball bearings, long grooved planks and teams of oxen.

As early as the 1970s, geologists have been adding their voices to the debate over how Stonehenge came into being. Challenging the classic image of industrious Neolithic builders pushing, carting, rolling or hauling the craggy bluestones from faraway Wales, some scientists have suggested that glaciers, not humans, did most of the heavy lifting. The globe is dotted with giant rocks known as glacial erratics that were carried over long distances by moving ice floes. Perhaps Stonehenge’s mammoth slabs were snatched from the Preseli Hills by glaciers during one of the Ice Ages and deposited a stone’s throw away—at least comparatively—from Salisbury Plain. Most archaeologists have remained cool toward the glacial theory, however, wondering how the forces of nature could possibly have delivered the exact number of stones needed to complete the circle.

WHO BUILT STONEHENGE?

According to the 12th-century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose tale of King Arthur and mythical account of English history were considered factual well into the Middle Ages, Stonehenge is the handiwork of the wizard Merlin. In the mid-fifth century, the story goes, hundreds of British nobles were slaughtered by the Saxons and buried on Salisbury Plain. Hoping to erect a memorial to his fallen subjects, King Aureoles Ambrosias sent an army to Ireland to retrieve a stone circle known as the Giants’ Ring, which ancient giants had built from magical African bluestones. The soldiers successfully defeated the Irish but failed to move the stones, so Merlin used his sorcery to spirit them across the sea and arrange them above the mass grave. Legend has it that Ambrosias and his brother Uther, King Arthur’s father, are buried there as well.

While many believed Monmouth’s account to be the true story of Stonehenge’s creation for centuries, the monument’s construction predates Merlin—or, at least, the real-life figures who are said to have inspired him—by several thousand years. Other early hypotheses attributed its building to the Saxons, Danes, Romans, Greeks or Egyptians. In the 17th century, archaeologist John Aubrey made the claim that Stonehenge was the work of the Celtic high priests known as the Druids, a theory widely popularized by the antiquarian William Stukeley, who had unearthed primitive graves at the site. Even today, people who identify as modern Druids continue to gather at Stonehenge for the summer solstice. However, in the mid-20th century, radiocarbon dating demonstrated that Stonehenge stood more than 1,000 years before the Celtsinhabited the region, eliminating the ancient Druids from the running.

Many modern historians and archaeologists now agree that several distinct tribes of people contributed to Stonehenge, each undertaking a different phase of its construction. Bones, tools and other artifacts found on the site seem to support this hypothesis. The first stage was achieved by Neolithic agrarians who were likely indigenous to the British Isles. Later, it is believed, groups with advanced tools and a more communal way of life left their stamp on the site. Some have suggested that they were immigrants from the European continent, but many scientists think they were native Britons descended from the original builders.

STONEHENGE’S FUNCTION AND SIGNIFICANCE

If the facts surrounding the architects and construction of Stonehenge remain shadowy at best, the purpose of the arresting monument is even more of a mystery. While historians agree that it was a place of great importance for over 1,000 years, we may never know what drew early Britons to Salisbury Plain and inspired them to continue developing it. There is strong archaeological evidence that Stonehenge was used as a burial site, at least for part of its long history, but most scholars believe it served other functions as well—either as a ceremonial site, a religious pilgrimage destination, a final resting place for royalty or a memorial erected to honor and perhaps spiritually connect with distant ancestors.

In the 1960s, the astronomer Gerald Hawkins suggested that the cluster of megalithic stones operated as an astronomical calendar, with different points corresponding to astrological phenomena such as solstices, equinoxes and eclipses. While his theory has received quite a bit of attention over the years, critics maintain that Stonehenge’s builders probably lacked the knowledge necessary to predict such events or that England’s dense cloud cover would have obscured their view of the skies. More recently, signs of illness and injury in the human remains unearthed at Stonehenge led a group of British archaeologists to speculate that it was considered a place of healing, perhaps because bluestones were thought to have curative powers.

STONEHENGE TODAY

One of the most famous and recognizable sites in the world, Stonehenge draws more than 800,000 tourists a year, many of whom also visit the region’s numerous other Neolithic and Bronze Age marvels. In 1986 Stonehenge was added to UNESCO’s register of World Heritage sites in a co-listing with Avebury, a Neolithic henge located 17 miles away that is older and larger than its more famous neighbor. Stonehenge has undergone several restorations over the years, and some of its boulders have been set in concrete to prevent collapse. Meanwhile, archaeological excavations and development of the surrounding area to facilitate tourism have turned up other significant sites nearby, including other henges.

3.    The Borobudur Temple, Indonesia

Buddhism is one of India's most successful exports. The religion developed in the Indian subcontinent, and over time spread across nearly all of Asia. That's pretty common knowledge, but did you know where Buddhism went first? After leaving India, one of the first places to adopt Buddhism wasn't in China or Japan - it was Indonesia.

As a result, Indonesia has some of the oldest Buddhist monuments in Asia, as well as some of the most spectacular. The crown jewel of these is the Borobudur Temple (pronounced BOro-buh-deur), located in central Java. Not only is it a stunning example of traditional Indonesian architecture, it's also the largest Buddhist monument in the world.

History of the Temple

The story of the Borobudur Temple begins with the Shailendra Dynasty (sometimes spelled Syailendra). This ruling family concentrated their power in central Java in the 8th century CE, and grew to control all of Java and parts of Sumatra. Some scholars think that the Shailendra came to Indonesia from India, while others think they were native to the island. Regardless, they clearly had some cultural connections to India and were major proponents of Mahayana Buddhism, which they actively spread across Indonesia.

Their biggest achievement was the Borobudur Temple, which was built over roughly 1,200 years from the 8th through 9th centuries. What they accomplished was an engineering marvel for the time; the 95-foot tall step pyramid is made of locally sourced stone set without mortar.

For centuries, Borobudur was a major pilgrimage site, attracting the faithful from as far away as India and China. It seems to have been very popular, but then was inexplicably abandoned in the 15th century. We don't know why Borobudur was left to be reclaimed by the jungle, but it remained lost for roughly 400 years before the colonial governor of British Java decided to have it excavated.

The excavations freed Borobudur from the jungle, but also left it open to looters. Finally, in the 1960s a massive campaign was launched by the Indonesian government and UNESCO to save and restore the site. Statues were taken out of private collections, stones were returned, and piece-by-piece Borobudur was cleaned, rebuilt, and reopened to the public. It is currently a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a stunning example of Indonesian architecture, but it has also reclaimed its role as a Buddhist pilgrimage site.

The Temple Complex

So, what makes Borobudur so special? The complex itself is very impressive, and noted particularly for an immense amount of artwork. There are over 500 statues of the Buddha spread across the site, and the walls of the pyramid are covered in reliefs of the life and teachings of Buddha. In fact, there are roughly 2,520 square meters of reliefs at Borobudur. That means that if you took all these reliefs off the walls and laid them out, you could completely cover half of a football field.

4.    Eiffel Tower

When Gustave Eiffel’s company built Paris’ most recognizable monument for the 1889 World’s Fair, many regarded the massive iron structure with skepticism. Today, the Eiffel Tower, which continues to serve an important role in television and radio broadcasts, is considered an architectural wonder and attracts more visitors than any other paid tourist attraction in the world.

 

DESIGNING AND BUILDING THE EIFFEL TOWER

In 1889, Paris hosted an Exposition Universelle (World’s Fair) to mark the 100-year anniversary of the French Revolution. More than 100 artists submitted competing plans for a monument to be built on the Champ-de-Mars, located in central Paris, and serve as the exposition’s entrance. The commission was granted to Eiffel et Compagnie, a consulting and construction firm owned by the acclaimed bridge builder, architect and metals expert Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel. While Eiffel himself often receives full credit for the monument that bears his name, it was one of his employees—a structural engineer named Maurice Koechlin—who came up with and fine-tuned the concept. Several years earlier, the pair had collaborated on the Statue of Liberty’s metal armature.

Did You Know?

The base pillars of the Eiffel Tower are oriented with the four points of the compass.

Eiffel reportedly rejected Koechlin’s original plan for the tower, instructing him to add more ornate flourishes. The final design called for more than 18,000 pieces of puddle iron, a type of wrought iron used in construction, and 2.5 million rivets. Several hundred workers spent two years assembling the framework of the iconic lattice tower, which at its inauguration in March 1889 stood nearly 1,000 feet high and was the tallest structure in the world—a distinction it held until the completion of New York City’s Chrysler Building in 1930. (In 1957, an antenna was added that increased the structure’s height by 65 feet, making it taller than the Chrysler Building but not the Empire State Building, which had surpassed its neighbor in 1931.) Initially, only the Eiffel Tower’s second-floor platform was open to the public; later, all three levels, two of which now feature restaurants, would be reachable by stairway or one of eight elevators.

Millions of visitors during and after the World’s Fair marveled at Paris’ newly erected architectural wonder. Not all of the city’s inhabitants were as enthusiastic, however: Many Parisians either feared it was structurally unsound or considered it an eyesore. The novelist Guy de Maupassant, for example, allegedly hated the tower so much that he often ate lunch in the restaurant at its base, the only vantage point from which he could completely avoid glimpsing its looming silhouette.

THE EIFFEL TOWER BECOMES A PERMANENT FEATURE OF THE PARIS SKYLINE

Originally intended as a temporary exhibit, the Eiffel Tower was almost torn down and scrapped in 1909. City officials opted to save it after recognizing its value as a radiotelegraph station. Several years later, during World War I, the Eiffel Tower intercepted enemy radio communications, relayed zeppelin alerts and was used to dispatch emergency troop reinforcements. It escaped destruction a second time during World War II: Hitler initially ordered the demolition of the city’s most cherished symbol, but the command was never carried out. Also during the German occupation of Paris, French resistance fighters famously cut the Eiffel Tower’s elevator cables so that the Nazis had to climb the stairs.

Over the years, the Eiffel Tower has been the site of numerous high-profile stunts, ceremonial events and even scientific experiments. In 1911, for instance, the German physicist Theodor Wulf used an electrometer to detect higher levels of radiation at its top than at its base, observing the effects of what are now called cosmic rays. The Eiffel Tower has also inspired more than 30 replicas and similar structures in various cities around the world.

Now one of the most recognizable structures on the planet, the Eiffel Tower underwent a major facelift in 1986 and is repainted every seven years. It welcomes more visitors than any other paid monument in the world—an estimated 7 million people per year. Some 500 employees are responsible for its daily operations, working in its restaurants, manning its elevators, ensuring its security and directing the eager crowds flocking the tower’s platforms to enjoy panoramic views of the City of Lights

5.    Pisa tower, Italy

The City of Pisa played an important role in Italy’s history.

As a vital seaport and a major center of trade, many people visited the city.

In the early days, Pisa was a popular resting place for pilgrims from Europe on their way to Jerusalem.

The military fleet of Pisa was most successful.

In 871 the fleet helped defend the Salerno from attackers, and it was Pisans that forced the Arab troops from the islands of Corsica and Sardinia in 1015.

The city of Pisa, Italy

As their riches and influence increased, the city of Pisa, Italy, became more and more powerful.

The island of Corsica came under Pisan control in 1077, and in 1113 so did the Balearic Islands near Spain. The Pisans enjoyed a time of great prosperity

The decline of Pisa began in 1284 when Genoa defeated the Pisans in battle.

The islands controlled by Pisa were lost and the influence began to decline.

By the 15th century the Arno River had become so filled with silt that it completely cut off Pisa from the sea. This marked the end of Pisa as a useful port and the end of its wealth and power.

Pisa Tower Construction

In 1174, engineer Bonnano Pisano laid a marble foundation large enough to park about 16 Ferrari 328s in and started building the campanile for the cathedral and baptistry of Pisa.

The Romanesque Tower of Pisa, comprising 14,000 tonnes of white marble, was completed 176 years later – but it was also embarrassingly crooked.

Because there was a lot of water under the ground in this area, Bonnano was able to place the foundation only about 10 feet down into the ground.

As the first story of the tower was completed, the south side began to sink.

The builders tried to make it look better by building the columns and arches on the south side about an inch taller than those on the north side.

However by the time they got to the fourth story, they had to make the southern columns 2 inches taller than the northern ones. The tower just continued to lean, and because of the difficulties the construction was stopped.

Pisa Tower Architecture

In 1234, the architect Benenato discovered that the tower was leaning even more. Now the south side of the fourth story was a full 6 inches shorter than the north side.

He added a fifth story, again making the south columns taller than the north ones. After adding that one story, Benenato gave up, and again construction on the tower stopped.

Almost thirty years later, in 1260, William of Innsbruck added the sixth and seventh stories to the Tower of Pisa.

In 1350 Tommaso Pisano started work on the eighth story of the tower, the bell chamber. He found that the tower was still sinking, and so he made the spiral stairs inside the tower and the wall of the bell chamber higher on the south side than on the north.

The tower was finally completed in 1372, almost 200 years after it was begun, and it was still leaning.

See also Historical Facts about Tower of Pisa.

6.    The Acropolis of Athens, yunani

The Acropolis of Athens is one of the most famous ancient archaeological sites in the world. Located on a limestone hill high above Athens, Greece, the Acropolis has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Over the centuries, the Acropolis was many things: a home to kings, a citadel, a mythical home of the gods, a religious center and a tourist attraction. It has withstood bombardment, massive earthquakes and vandalism yet still stands as a reminder of the rich history of Greece.

WHAT IS THE ACROPOLIS?

The term “acropolis” can refer to one of many natural strongholds constructed on rocky, elevated ground in Greece, but the Acropolis of Athens is the best-known.

Made of limestone rock that dates to the Late Cretaceous period when dinosaurs still roamed the earth, the Acropolis is located on the Attica plateau of Greece and includes four hills:

Likavitos Hill

Hill of the Nymphs

The Pynx Hill

Philapappos Hill

The Acropolis’ flat top is the result of thousands of years of construction beginning as far back as the Bronze Age.

ANCIENT HISTORY AT THE ACROPOLIS

There’s no recorded history of what happened at the Acropolis before the Mycenaeans cultivated it during the end of the Bronze Age. Historians believe the Mycenaeans built a massive compound surrounded by a great wall (almost 15 feet thick and 20 feet high) on top of the Acropolis to house the local ruler and his household.

Years later, the Athenians built a Doric temple made of limestone, known as Bluebeard Temple, on the northeast side of the hill in honor of the goddess Athena in the sixth century B.C. It was named after a sculpture which adorned the building that depicted a man-serpent with three blue beards.

Another temple dedicated to Athena was also erected in the same century, as was a shrine to Artemis Brauronia, the goddess of expectant mothers.

During the Greek Dark Ages (800 B.C. to 480. B.C.), the Acropolis remained largely intact. Many religious festivals were held there, and the artifacts of the time reflected the grandeur of ancient Athens.

Around 490 B.C., the Athenians started building a majestic marble temple known as the Old Parthenon. By that time, the Bluebeard Temple had been demolished by the Persians.

In 480 B.C., the Persians attacked again and burned, leveled and looted the Old Parthenon and almost every other structure at the Acropolis. To prevent further losses, the Athenians buried the remaining sculptures inside natural caves and built two new fortifications, one of the rock’s north side and one on its south.

GOLDEN AGE OF THE ACROPOLIS

If the Acropolis was impressive during the Mycenaean Civilization, it was nothing short of spectacular during the Golden Age of Athens (460 B.C. to 430 B.C.) under the rule of Pericles when Athens was at its cultural peak.

Determined to bring the Acropolis to a level of splendor not seen before, Pericles initiated a massive building project which lasted 50 years. Under his direction, two well-known architects, Callicrates and Ictinus, and renowned sculptor Phidias helped plan and execute the Pericles’ plan.

Pericles didn’t live long enough to see his entire Acropolis vision come true, but temple builders and architects continued working until they completed the project. The southern and northern walls were rebuilt and some of the most iconic structures in the world were constructed such as:

The Parthenon: An enormous Doric-style temple which remains the star attraction of the Acropolis. It featured ornate sculptures and housed a spectacular statue of the goddess Athena.

The Propylaea: A monumental entryway to the Acropolis which included a central building and two wings, one of which was covered with elaborately painted panels.

The Temple of Athena Nike: A small Ionic-style temple located to the right of the Propylaea built as a shrine to Athena Nike.

The Erechtheion: A sacred Ionic temple made of marble which honored Athena and several other gods and heroes. It’s best known for its porch supported by six Caryatid maiden statues.

The Statue of Athena Promachos: A gigantic (almost 30 feet tall) bronze statue of Athena which stood next to the Propylaea.

The Acropolis saw few changes after Sparta won the Peloponnesian War, although a minor temple honoring Caesar Augustus and Rome was built in 27 B.C.

WARS AND RELIGION INVADE THE ACROPOLIS

In the sixth century A.D., after Rome converted to Christianity, many temples at the Acropolis became Christian churches. The Parthenon was dedicated to the Virgin Mary and the Erechtheion became a chapel.

As Greece endured many unwelcome invaders, including the Venetians and the Turks, the Acropolis and its temples also served as mosques and storehouses for ammunition. The Propylaea was a residence for Episcopalian clergy and later, the Ottoman ruler. It also once served as barracks for the Turkish occupying army.

On September 26, 1687, the Venetians bombarded the Acropolis and decimated the Parthenon, which was a powder munitions depot at the time, leaving it at the mercy of looters, vandals and even tourists; many priceless artifacts were lost.

In 1801, hoping to save the Parthenon’s architectural magnificence, the seventh Earl of Elgin, Thomas Bruce, began removing its sculptures with permission from the occupying Turkish government.

Elgin eventually removed over half of the Parthenon’s sculptures, known as the Elgin Marbles, and sold them to the British Museum where many still reside today. The Greek government strongly disapproves of the artifacts remaining in the hands of the British and feels the sculptures should be returned to Athens.

PRESERVING THE ACROPOLIS

After the Greek War of Independence in 1822, the Acropolis was returned to the Greeks in disrepair. They began investigating the condition of their crown jewel and meticulously excavated the entire site in the late nineteenth century. At the turn of the twentieth century, restorations began.

In 1975, the Committee for the Conservation of the Monuments on the Acropolis was established which includes architects, archaeologists, chemical engineers and civil engineers. The Committee, along with the Acropolis Restoration Service, works to document and conserve the history of the Acropolis and restore its structures as closely to their original state as possible.

They also work to minimize environmental damage caused by pollution and weathering and identify ways to limit future damage. The restorations of the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike are complete.

VISITING THE ACROPOLIS

The Acropolis is open to tourists year-round. Tickets are available at the entrance, but be prepared to wait. To miss the crowds and the summer heat, arrive early in the morning or after 5:00 p.m.

Most importantly, bring comfortable shoes and water because exploring the Acropolis requires a lot of walking. Keep in mind that some buildings may be inaccessible due to renovations.

7.    Angkor wat, cambodia

Angkor Wat is an enormous Buddhist temple complex located in northern Cambodia. It was originally built in the first half of the 12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. Its name, which translates to “temple city” in the Khmer language of the region, references the fact it was built by Emperor Suryavarman II, who ruled the region from 1113 to 1150, as the state temple and political center of his empire.

Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhisttemple by the end of the 12^th century.

Although it is no longer an active temple, it serves as an important tourist attraction in Cambodia, despite the fact it sustained significant damage during the autocratic rule of the Khmer Rouge regime in the 1970s and in earlier regional conflicts.

WHERE IS ANGKOR WAT?

Angkor Wat is located roughly five miles north of the modern Cambodian city of Siem Reap, which has a population of more than 200,000 people.

However, when it was built, it served as the capital of the Khmer empire, which ruled the region at the time. The word “Angkor” means “capital city” in the Khmer language, while the word “Wat” means “temple.”

Initially, Angkor Wat was designed as a Hindu temple, as that was the religion of the region’s ruler at the time, Suryavarman II. However, by the end of the 12^th century, it was considered a Buddhist site.

Unfortunately, by then, Angkor Wat had been sacked by a rival tribe to the Khmer, who in turn, at the direction of the new emperor, Jayavarman VII, moved their capital to Angkor Thom and their state temple to Bayon, both of which are a few miles to the north of the historic site.

As Angkor Wat’s significance within the Buddhist religion of the region increased, so too did the legend surrounding the site. Many Buddhists believe the temple’s construction was ordered by the god Indra, and that the work was accomplished in one night.

However, scholars now know it took several decades to build Angkor Wat, from the design phase to completion.

ANGKOR WAT’S DESIGN

Although Angkor Wat was no longer a site of political, cultural or commercial significance by the 13^th century, it remained an important monument for the Buddhist religion into the 1800s.

Indeed, unlike many historical sites, Angkor Wat was never truly abandoned. Rather, it fell gradually into disuse and disrepair.

Nonetheless, it remained an architectural marvel unlike anything else. It was “rediscovered” in 1840s by the French explorer Henri Mouhot, who wrote that the site was “grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome.”

The compliment can likely be attributed to the temple’s design, which is supposed to represent Mount Meru, the home of the gods, according to tenets of both the Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Its five towers are intended to recreate the five peaks of Mount Meru, while the walls and moat below honor the surrounding mountain ranges and the sea.

By the time of the site’s construction, the Khmer had developed and refined their own architectural style, which relied on sandstone. As a result, Angkor Wat was constructed with blocks of sandstone.

A 15-foot high wall, surrounded by a wide moat, protected the city, the temple and residents from invasion, and much of that fortification is still standing. A sandstone causeway served as the main access point for the temple.

Inside these walls, Angkor Wat stretches across more than 200 acres. It’s believed that this area included the city, the temple structure and the emperor’s palace, which was just north of the temple.

However, in keeping with tradition at the time, only the city’s outer walls and the temple were made of sandstone, with the rest of the structures built from wood and other, less durable materials. Hence, only portions of the temple and city wall remain.

Even so, the temple is still a majestic structure: At its highest point—the tower above the main shrine—it reaches nearly 70 feet into the air.

The temple walls are decorated with thousands of bas-reliefs representing important deities and figures in the Hindu and Buddhist religions as well as key events in its narrative tradition. There is also a bas-relief depicting Emperor Suryavarman II entering the city, perhaps for the first time following its construction.

ANGKOR WAT TODAY

Unfortunately, although Angkor Wat remained in use until fairly recently—into the 1800s—the site has sustained significant damage, from forest overgrowth to earthquakes to war.

The French, who ruled what is now known as Cambodia for much of the 20^thcentury, established a commission to restore the site for tourism purposes in the early 1900s. This group also oversaw ongoing archeological projects there.

While restoration work was accomplished in bits and pieces under French rule, major efforts didn’t begin in earnest until the 1960s. By then, Cambodia was a country transitioning from colonial rule to a limited form of constitutional monarchy.

When Cambodia fell into a brutal civil war in the 1970s, Angkor Wat, somewhat miraculously, sustained relatively minimal damage. The autocratic and barbarous Khmer Rouge regime did battle troops from neighboring Vietnam in the area near the ancient city, and there are bullet holes marking its outer walls as a result.

Since then, with the Cambodian government undergoing numerous changes, the international community, including representatives of India, Germany and France, among others, have contributed to the ongoing restoration efforts.

The site remains an important source of national pride for Cambodians.

In 1992, it was named a UNESCO World Heritage site. Although visitors to Angkor Wat numbered in just the few thousands at the time, the landmark now welcomes some 500,000 visitors each year—many of whom arrive early in the morning to capture images of the sunrise over what still is a very magical, spiritual place.

8.    The Taj Mahal, india

The Taj Mahal is an enormous mausoleum complex commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to house the remains of his beloved wife. Constructed over a 20-year period on the southern bank of the Yamuna River in Agra, India, the famed complex is one of the most outstanding examples of Mughal architecture, which combined Indian, Persian and Islamic influences. At its center is the Taj Mahal itself, built of shimmering white marble that seems to change color depending on the daylight. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983, it remains one of the world’s most celebrated structures and a stunning symbol of India’s rich history.

SHAH JAHAN

Shah Jahan was a member of the Mughal dynasty that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid 18th-century. After the death of his father, King Jahangir, in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged the victor of a bitter power struggle with his brothers, and crowned himself emperor at Agra in 1628.

At his side was Arjumand Banu Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal (“Chosen One of the Palace”), whom he married in 1612 and cherished as the favorite of his three queens.

In 1631, Mumtaz Mahal died after giving birth to the couple’s 14th child. The grieving Shah Jahan, known for commissioning a number of impressive structures throughout his reign, ordered the building of a magnificent mausoleum across the Yamuna River from his own royal palace at Agra.

Construction began around 1632 and would continue for the next two decades. The chief architect was probably Ustad Ahmad Lahouri, an Indian of Persian descent who would later be credited with designing the Red Fort at Delhi.

In all, more than 20,000 workers from India, Persia, Europe and the Ottoman Empire, along with some 1,000 elephants, were brought in to build the mausoleum complex.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE TAJ MAHAL

Named the Taj Mahal in honor of Mumtaz Mahal, the mausoleum was constructed of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones (including jade, crystal, lapis lazuli, amethyst and turquoise) forming intricate designs in a technique known as pietra dura.

Its central dome reaches a height of 240 feet (73 meters) and is surrounded by four smaller domes; four slender towers, or minarets, stood at the corners. In accordance with the traditions of Islam, verses from the Quran were inscribed in calligraphy on the arched entrances to the mausoleum, in addition to numerous other sections of the complex.

Inside the mausoleum, an octagonal marble chamber adorned with carvings and semi-precious stones housed the cenotaph, or false tomb, of Mumtaz Mahal. The real sarcophagus containing her actual remains lay below, at garden level.

The rest of the Taj Mahal complex included a main gateway of red sandstone and a square garden divided into quarters by long pools of water, as well as a red sandstone mosque and an identical building called a jawab (or “mirror”) directly across from the mosque. Traditional Mughal building practice would allow no future alterations to be made to the complex.

As the story goes, Shah Jahan intended to build a second grand mausoleum across the Yamuna River from the Taj Mahal, where his own remains would be buried when he died; the two structures were to have been connected by a bridge.

In fact, Aurangzeb (Shah Jahan’s third son with Mumtaz Mahal) deposed his ailing father in 1658 and took power himself. Shah Jahan lived out the last years of his life under house arrest in a tower of the Red Fort at Agra, with a view of the majestic resting place he had constructed for his wife; when he died in 1666, he was buried next to her.

Did You Know?

According to one gruesome (and most likely sensational) story, Shah Jahan had his minions cut off the hands of the Taj Mahal's architect and his workers after the structure was completed, ensuring they would never build another of its kind.

TAJ MAHAL OVER THE YEARS

Under Aurangzeb’s long rule (1658-1707), the Mughal empire reached the height of its strength. However, his militant Muslim policies, including the destruction of many Hindu temples and shrines, undermined the enduring strength of the empire and led to its demise by the mid-18th century.

Even as Mughal power crumbled, the Taj Mahal suffered from neglect and disrepair in the two centuries after Shah Jahan’s death. Near the turn of the 19th century, Lord Curzon, then British viceroy of India, ordered a major restoration of the mausoleum complex as part of a colonial effort to preserve India’s artistic and cultural heritage.

Today, some 3 million people a year (or around 45,000 a day during peak tourist season) visit the Taj Mahal.

Air pollution from nearby factories and automobiles poses a continual threat to the mausoleum’s gleaming white marble façade, and in 1998, India’s Supreme Court ordered a number of anti-pollution measures to protect the building from deterioration. Some factories were closed, while vehicular traffic was banned from the immediate vicinity of the complex.

9.    history egypt pyramids

Egyptian pyramids is the name for the pyramid located in Egypt known as the "land pyramid" pyramid sites even found in large quantities in the Yucatan Peninsula which is the center of Mayan civilization.
Pyramids in Egypt are generally used as the tomb of Ancient Egyptian kings known as pharaohs. Nevertheless, many centuries ago pyramid is often used as the target of looting and tomb robbers because the kings bring his wealth and all sorts of artifacts to in the afterlife, even given some sort of protection with curses to prevent it. So at the time of the ancient Egyptian kings next, the tombs of kings and nobles were placed in a hidden valley as well as the tomb of King Tutankhamun were found intact and complete.
Pyramid was not made ​​haphazardly. The engineers of ancient Egyptian pyramids first calculate the distance to the sun, because the sun is one of the most important things in the life of the ancient Egyptians. Scientists of today also recognize their prowess in building pyramids, including the world's seven wonders. Time, treasure, and the energy released by the construction of the pyramids was extraordinary. Pyramid construction takes about twenty years and employs more than ten thousand slaves, and many whose lives are drifting. Largest pyramids located in Giza

History Myths and Findings Archaeology

Since century to the-6 SM, Egypt constitute a place runaway kingdom Poshi, which loses his position after stand over than 2,000 years, received a powers which originating from outside namely kingdom Greek, Roma, kingdom Islam as well as of power another nation. During it a large number famous works the times Pharaoh destroyed, script and beliefs religion of nation Egyptians themselves basis being gradually replaced by other cultures, so that culture ancient Egypt become receding and destroyed, the later generations also loses a large number relics which can decipher clues which abandoned by the predecessor.

Years 450 SM, after a historian Greek drive around and arrived in Egypt, affix writings: Cheops, (alphabet Greece Khufu), purportedly he said, destroyed after 50 years of. Within certain extent historians Greece such using the the sentence "purportedly he said", he meant that the his righteousness need to be proven anymore. However, ever since it the opinion Greek historian are subject to counteraccusations become citations generation of lately as an proof important that the pyramid was founded on dynasty kingdom to the-4.

Building Technique who Affairs Ordinary

In Egypt, there are so many pyramids a variety sorts of sizes, the default is instead of alone much smaller, its structure else rude. Of whom pyramid which founded in royal period into-5 and 6, many which already damaged and destroyed, became heap of ruins, such as for example pyramid Raja Menkaure like on the image. Later, the great pyramid which was built on period a more early, in a a earthquake the earth devastating on century to the-13, in where partly the stone bricked next to outer has been destroyed, however because part inside is supported by wall buffer, so that the the whole its structure remains very strong. Hence, when build pyramid the giant, instead of just in a simple collate 3 million stone become form of cone, if there are deficiency on draft special construction this, partly alone who damaged, then it could result in entirely collapsed because of it weighs the burden which sustained.

Again anyway, how is project pyramid building the giant it done, remains is a topic which make dizzy the scholars. Besides considering a large number stone and manpower who necessary, factor foremost is the point culmination pyramid must be in the field of basic right in midpoint 4 corner upper. Because if into-4 his corner tilted and a little deviate, then the when the closes the point culmination not possibly fused in one point, means the project this building is declared failed. Hence, constitute an points who supremely important, how is laying a number of 2.3 million -2.6 million fruit large stone who every stone is weighs 2.5 ton from the surface the soil up to as high as more than a hundred meter in space and fitted from the start to finish on position the exact.

Master Li Hongzhi in his lecture on the circumference North America 2002 were also ever alluded to the possibility it. "Humans not be can understand how the pyramid were made. Stone who so great how humans transport it? Some people humans giants who the height five meter transporting something, it was with humans now move a a big stone is the same. To build pyramid it, humans as high as five meter equally like we are now build a large building. "

Thought thus willing to do not want make us to imagine, that the pyramid giant and a a large number buildings stone ancient giant who are found in the various corners of the world has been bring in doubts who same to all people: large high and majestic, are formed with using the arrangement of stones which very large, even its formulation very perfect. Such as for example, in outskirts of town northern Mexico there is Castles Sacsahuaman who compiled with giant stone who weighs exceeding 100 ton is more, in among whom there a giant stone whose height reaches 28 foot, estimated to weigh reach 360 ton (equivalent with 500 fruit family car). And in plains southwest England contained formations giant rock, surrounded dozens of stone the giant and forming a large roundabout, in among several stone height reaches 6 meter. Actually, a group of humans which how is they it? Why always using stone a giant, and do not use stones who its size within range our ability to build?

Sphinx, lion duplicity humans which is also constitute important object in research scientist, the high 20 meter, overall length 73 meter, is considered established by job Pharaoh into-4 namely Khafre. However, through the former which eaten carats (erosion) on body surfaces of Sphinx, scientists estimate that the period its manufacture may be more early, least do not 10 thousand years ago before AD.

Expert science of definitely Swalle Rubich showed: on years 11,000 BC, Egypt definitely has been have an culture which is terrific. At that moment Sphinx has been exist, because a proportion of lion body duplicity humans it, besides the head of, obviously once there is secondhand erosion. Our estimate is on a floods devastating years of 11,000 SM and rain torrential who silih changed its ago resulted in secondhand erosion.

Washeth and Robert S. also showed: Technology nation ancient Egyptians not be possibly be able carve out scale who in such large in above a giant rock, products art which his technique intricate.

If observed overall, we could conclude logically, that the on period archaeological, in above the land of Egypt, ever there is a culture which very advanced, however because of the existence a shift slab of earth, mainland stone drowning in oceans, and the culture which very ancient at that time was ultimately removed, leaving pyramid and Sphinx with the using technology perfect building.

Sphinx statue of lion-headed humans are believed to constitute the head Cheops. Has a length of 3 Meter and height 20 Meter. Symbolizes character of dashing like a lion and personality gentle like a human.

Sphinx which neighbors close with giant pyramid it looks extremely old-fashioned. The scientists ensure that the from his body, channel and irrigation who such as pearled water, he never experienced partially weather who humid, hence estimates that he very likely had been there are before 10 thousand years ago.

10.          Fort Rotterdam, indonesia

Fort Rotterdam is a 17th-century fort in Makassar on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is a Dutch fort built on top of an existing fort of the Gowa Kingdom. The original fort, Jum Pandan (allegedly named after the pandanus trees growing in the vicinity), gave its name to the city Ujung Pandang, another name for the city of Makassar.

Fort Rotterdam in late 19th-century.

Fort Rotterdam was built on the location of an earlier Makassarese fort, called Ujung Pandang. Although it has been claimed by some authors that this fort dates back to 1545,^[1] there is no direct evidence for this, and it seems more likely that the fort was built in 1634, as part of a fortification programme that the Makassar rulers undertook in response to a war with the Dutch East India Company which broke out in this year.^[2]

In 1667 Fort Ujung Pandang was ceded to the Dutch as part of the Bungaya Treaty, after the defeat of Gowa in the Makassar War. It was in subsequent years entirely rebuilt on the initiative of Dutch admiral Cornelis Speelman to become the center of Dutch colonial power in Sulawesi.^[3] It was renamed Fort Rotterdam after Speelman's place of birth. In the years 1673-1679 it got its five bastions and the 'turtle' shape it still has to this day. This shape gave the fort the nickname "Benteng Penyu" ("sea-turtle fort"). The stone for the construction of the fort was taken from the karst mountains in Maros, the limestone from Selayar and the woods from Tanete and Bantaeng.^[4][5] Following the Java War (1825–1830), Javanese prince, and now national hero, Diponegoro was imprisoned in the fort following his exile to Makassar in 1830 until his death in 1855.^[6] It was also used as a Japanese prisoner of war camp in World War II.^[5]

Fort Rotterdam remained the regional Dutch military and governmental headquarters until 1930s.^[3] After 1937, the fort was no longer used as a defense. During the brief Japanese occupation it was used for conducting scientific research in the field of linguistics and agriculture, after which it fell into disrepair.^[4]

In the 1970s, the fort was extensively restored.

18th-century layout of Fort Rotterdam.

Fort Rotterdam lies in the heart of Makassar. It is rectangular in shape, surrounded with 7 meter wall and was equipped with six bulwarks, five of them are still visible: Bastion Bonie (after the Bone state) to the west, Bastion Boeton (Buton Island) to the northwest, Bastion Batjang(Bacan Islands) to the southwest, Bastion Mandassar to the northeast, and Bastion Amboina (Ambon) to the southeast. The sixth bulwark, Bastion Ravelin, is not visible any longer. Some of the bastions still contain some cannons. It is possible to walk over most of the ramparts. A two meter deep moat system used to surround the perimeter of the fort, however only the southwest portion of the moat can still be seen today.^[4]

Inside the fort are thirteen buildings, 11 of them are 17th-century original buildings of the fort; most are still good in condition. At the very center of the fort is a church building. Several buildings along the north and south curtain wall still exist: the buildings along the northern curtain wall were some of the oldest buildings (1686), such as the residence of the governor, residence of the senior merchant, of the captain, the predikant, and the secretary, with several storage for weapons. The government's residence at the north-westernmost is nicknamed as "the Speelman's House", however Speelman himself never actually lived in this house. The house was used by the governor of Celebes until the mid 19th-century when he moved to a more comfortable villa in Jalan Ahmad Yani. The Speelman's House now housed one half of La Galigo museum. La Galigo museum kept some prehistoric megaliths from Watampone, as well as ancient weapons, coins, shells, utensils, sketches and stamps.^[3] The buildings on the south curtain, originally a storage, housed a museum displaying local skills in silk weaving, agriculture and boatbuilding; and scale models of indigenous boats.^[3] The barracks on the eastern wall now housed a small library, featuring old Dutch books that mostly belonged to Reverend Mates, a 19th-century missionary. There is also ships' logs of VOC captains and ancient lontar manuscripts.^[4] The department of archaeology is housed in the former building of the head of the administration of VOC; the ground floor of the building, located in the southeast corner of the fort, was formerly a prison.^[4]

The other two buildings inside Fort Rotterdam were built by the Japanese during the brief Japanese occupation period.^[4]

The southwestern Bastion (Bastion Bacan) contains a prison where Prince Diponegoro was imprisoned for the rest of his life.^[6]

The fort is now used to held various events. There is a conservatory for music and dance, archive of the city, and a historic and archaeological institute.^[4]

Sumber :

1.      https://www.history.com

2.      http://www.towerofpisa.org/leaning-tower-of-pisa-history/

3.      https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-borobudur-temple-definition-history-facts.html

4.      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Rotterdam

5.      http://riksaalfarizi.blogspot.co.id/2013/06/history-egypt-pyramids-sejarah-piramida.html